Food and Mood

Daniel Roberts, Ph.D. & Brenda MacDonald, M.Ed

Foodpsychology.ca

Contemporary research increasingly indicates that nutrient imbalances, whether due to deficiencies or excesses of essential nutrients, significantly impact mood regulation and the development of a multitude of health issues, including neurological disorders and cognitive impairment. Encouragingly, substantial evidence suggests that consuming a comprehensive diet—one that incorporates all essential nutrients, such as vitamins, minerals, macronutrients (protein, carbohydrates, fats), fiber and water—is fundamental for optimizing overall health as well as enhancing cognitive functions (Barbey & Davis, 2023; Chen et al., 2018; Gutierrez, Turner & Patel, 2021; Leyse-Wallace, 2008; Morris & Hohiuddin, 2024; Muscaritoli, 2021; Spencer et al, 2017; Turner, 2019).

The essential nutrients

Every physiological process occurring in our body depends on a regular supply of essential nutrients. Without these nutrients, which we must obtain from food, deficiencies will develop since the body cannot produce them independently. Essential nutrients comprise over 52 vital components, including 21 minerals, 13 vitamins, and 9 amino acids. Obtained from a variety of foods, these essential nutrients ensure that the brain and, especially soft tissues organs, receive adequate nourishment to support the production of molecules involved in metabolic functions. These functions include but are not limited energy metabolism, regulating DNA and protein synthesis, lipid and carbohydrate metabolism, and the production of hormones and neurotransmitters.

In addition to essential nutrients, a class of nutrients derived from amino acids and termed as non-essential is also crucial for sustaining daily physiological functions and maintaining good health. The primary distinction between essential and non-essential nutrients lies in the body's ability to synthesize them. Unlike essential nutrients, which the body cannot produce or synthesize, non-essential nutrient derived from amino acids can be synthesized by the body, internally, although they are also obtainable through dietary intake. Among the roster of non-essential nutrients are histamine, tyrosine, proline, alanine, glutamic acid, and arginine (conditionally essential, especially in children).

Carbohydrates and sugary foods

Carbohydrates, particularly those prevalent in sugary foods, are widely acknowledged as significant contributors to mood instability. These foods are notorious for disrupting insulin levels in the bloodstream, leading to fluctuations in blood sugar levels. Following the consumption of a sugary meal, blood sugar levels can rapidly plummet and fluctuate outside of the normal range, triggering adverse effects on mood and cognition. Such effects may manifest as mood swings, irritability, anxiety, lethargy, sleepiness, and intense cravings, often accompanied by symptoms like brain fog and headaches (Beilharz, Maniam, Morris & 2015; Gillespie et al., 2023; Ugartemendia, 2020).

Insulin regulation is intricately linked to essential nutrients, such as chromium and magnesium. Magnesium, in collaboration with B vitamins—particularly B3, B1, and B2—plays a crucial role in facilitating the conversion of glucose to its stored form and vice versa. Optimal forms of magnesium supplementation, such as magnesium citrate or magnesium ascorbate (a form of vitamin C), support adrenal gland function, promote relaxation, and potentially enhance cognitive function. Additionally, minerals like vanadium and manganese play key roles in glucose metabolism. These essential nutrients are abundantly found in diets rich in green leafy vegetables, fruits, nuts, seeds, fish, eggs, and whole grains (Dou et al., 2016; Dubey, Thakur & Chattopadhyay, 2020).

Furthermore, cravings for and consumption of sweet and starchy foods have been observed to induce transient reductions in blood sugar levels, coinciding with elevations in blood insulin and neuropeptide Y (NPY) levels (Reichmann & Holzer, 2016). This physiological response, which is associated with a decrease in serotonin levels, exacerbates feelings of dysphoria, characterized by a pervasive sense of discomfort, irritability, and anxiety. Additionally, diminished sugar levels have been associated with decreased concentrations of neurotransmitters such as serotonin and dopamine in the brain, potentially impairing motivation, as well as other cognitive domains, including executive function, which involves skills like problem-solving, planning, and decision-making.

Neurotransmitters and hormonal balance

A deficiency or excess in one or some of the essential nutrients can disrupt the balance other neurotransmitters, affecting not only serotonin and dopamine, but also acetylcholine, Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), norepinephrine, and glutamate (Gasmi et al., 2022). For instance, niacin, also referred to as vitamin B3, is involved in over fifty metabolic processes, including the release of energy from carbohydrates and the production of numerous neurotransmitters, as well as hormones, such as insulin and thyroid hormones. These neurotransmitters and hormones have pivotal roles not only in regulating mood but also in many aspects of health, and cognitive functions.

Serotonin, a neurotransmitter, crucial for brain calming, is closely linked to mood regulation as well as sleep, appetite, and social engagement. It aids in alleviating worries and concerns. Research indicated that foods rich in simple carbohydrates quickly elevate serotonin (Wurtman et al. 2003). However, simple carbohydrates prompt insulin spikes, leading to a decrease in amino acids except tryptophan. Consequently, there is reduced competition for tryptophan to enter the brain. This phenomenon partly explains why individuals may develop a dependency on or addiction to foods like bread, pasta, potatoes, rice, and sugar, often referred to as 'mood foods,' as they experience increased relaxation and diminished anxiety after consumption.

Another neurotransmitter, dopamine, known to influence motivation, emotional significance, focus, and pleasure, facilitates goal-directed behavior. Foods rich in protein are known to elevate dopamine levels, potentially enhancing goal-directed behavior and productivity (Berridge & Kringelback, 2008). Conversely, consumption of simple carbohydrates, such as sugar and refined grains, can deplete dopamine levels. Foods promoting dopamine synthesis include beef, poultry, fish, eggs, seeds (especially pumpkin and sesame), nuts (such as almonds and walnuts), cheese, protein powders, and green tea.

Endorphins, acting as both hormones and neurotransmitters, play a role in regulation of mood and emotional well-being (Mahindru, Patil & Agrawal, 2023; Pilozzi, Carro & Huang, 2020). Endorphins, synthesized by the pituitary gland and hypothalamus in response to stress, pain, and pleasurable activities, like exercise, eating, and sexual activity, require a steady intake of high-protein foods such as fish, eggs, cottage cheese, meat and chicken. Unlike other neurotransmitters, endorphins are comprised of at least fifteen amino acids. Therefore, maintaining a balanced diet rich in protein and healthy fats is essential for sustaining optimal endorphin levels, and moods.

Fats and moods

Fats, akin to carbohydrates and protein-rich foods have a significant role in regulating mood (Firth et al, 2020; Huang et al, 2019). The brain, primarily composed of fat, relies on this element for intercellular communication. Serving as a concentrated energy source, fats contribute substantially to the structural integrity and optimal functioning of brain cells. Notably, dietary fats are associated with mood modulation. A fat-free diet may induce crankiness, while certain fats can elicit feelings of giddiness. This physiological response is influenced by individual sensitivity and the specific type of fat ingested.

There are three main types of dietary fats: i.e., triglycerides, phospholipids, and sterols. Cholesterol (a type of lipid) and saturated fats (i.e., a type of triglyceride) is often associated with negative health outcomes (Ronzio, 1997; Turner, 2019). However, not all saturated fats are inherently detrimental to health. In fact, an intake of saturated fat is essential for facilitating cellular communication, synthesizing steroid hormones, and producing vitamin D, all of which contribute significantly to mood stability. These fats predominantly sourced from animal products like meat, butter, and dairy items, as well as coconut, fulfill essential physiological functions pivotal for emotional well-being.

Unsaturated fats are widely regarded as healthier alternatives to their saturated counterparts. Unsaturated fats can be further categorized into monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats. Monounsaturated fats, prevalent in foods like olive oil, avocados, nuts, peanuts, and sesame seeds, constitute key components of the traditional Mediterranean diet, renowned for its anti-inflammatory properties and cardiac benefits.

Polyunsaturated fats, also known as essential fatty acids (EFAs), assume crucial roles in structural and functional capacities within the body, notably supporting optimal brain function and mood regulation (Bentsen, 2017; Turner, 2019; Sokoła-Wysoczańska et al., 2018). Omega-3 fatty acids, a type of polyunsaturated fat, along with omega-6 fatty acids are needed for various bodily functions, including brain health, a healthy heart, and reducing inflammation. Fatty acids participating in mood regulation are typically found in fatty fish (such as salmon, mackerel, and sardines), flaxseeds, chia seeds, walnuts, and certain vegetable oils (like flaxseed oil and canola oil). Omega-6 essential fatty acids are found in vegetable oil such as sunflower and rapeseed oil (both of which are often used in margarines, along with palm oil and evening primrose oil (EPO).

Stress in relation to nutrition

In relation to nutrition, stress can disrupt the intake and utilization of essential food nutrients, thereby impacting metabolic processes reliant on these nutrients. For example, iron deficiency leads to reduce oxygen supply to the tissue and brain, resulting in feelings fatigue, irritability, and difficulty concentrating. Similarly, an inadequate intake of the B vitamins stresses the cells’ ability to convert carbohydrates and fats into energy, causing fatigue, weakness, and cognitive impairments (Muscaritoli, 2021).

Moreover, stress hinders the absorption of essential nutrients, increasing their excretion or altering their use. Consequently, stress depletes essential nutrients, including minerals like magnesium, selenium, iron, zinc and manganese, weakening the immune system, and exacerbating the stress response, thereby influencing mood regulation, health and well-being. Additionally, stress can impact on the levels of antioxidant nutrients, such as vitamin C, vitamin E, vitamins K, B12, and vitamin A. Inadequate levels of these vitamins, crucial for immune function regulation, can lead to symptoms like fatigue, muscle weakness, and heightened susceptible to infections.

The underlying mechanism involves stress triggering the secretion of the hormone cortisol, a hormone that intensifies the depletion of vital nutrients like magnesium from cellular stores (Jones & Gwenin, 2021; Knezevic et al., 2023). While this process is primarily associated with critical organs like the heart, its ramifications extend to other bodily systems, including the brain, liver, and the pancreas. Consequently, compromised levels of nutrients in various internal bodily organs can contibute to not only mood disorders, but also health issues, and cognitive dysfunctions.

The gut, digestion, and mood

The chemical processes that mediate emotions, and mood, occurs not only in our brains, but also in the gut microbiome (Appleton, 2018; Panduro et al., 2017). The gut, often referred as the enteric nervous system (ENS), serves as the manufacturing plant for over 30 neurotransmitters. Social stress and anxiety drives excessive output of stress-responding neurotransmitters, including dopamine, norepinephrine, and epinephrine, to be released, which influence the growth of imbalanced gut bacteria, and ailments.

Interestingly, an aspect of the microbiome is that it produces minute amounts of ethanol (alcohol) from the ingestion of charbohydrates (Chen, Xu & Chen, 2021). Carbohydrate-rich foods can stimulate the production of serotonin, a neurotransmitter associated with feelings of relaxation and drowsiness. Some carbohydrate-rich foods (e.g., whole grain, legumes, fruits, nuts and seeds) also contain tryptophan, an amino acid that is a precursor to serotonin and melatonin, a hormone involved in regulating sleep-wake cycles. As such, consuming foods high in tryptophan can potentially increase the production of serotonin and melatonin, thus leading to feelings of relaxation and drowsiness

Surprisingly, some individuals experience a condition known as "auto-brewery syndrome" (ABS), where fermentation of carbohydrates, such as sugars and starches, by yeast or bacteria present in the gastrointestinal tract, leads to inebriation. This condition is also referred to as "food drunkenness" (Painter, Cordell & Sticco, 2023). ABS is a rare condition in which the digestive system produces ethanol (alcohol) within the body after the consumption of carbohydrates, typically from foods containing sugars or starches. Individuals diagnosed with ABS may suffer medical and psychological diagnoses, as well as the social implications of alcoholism (Dinis-Oliveira, 2021).

Effects of foods on sexuality

There is mounting evidence indicating that excessive consumption of sugar-sweetened foods or a sucrose diet can adversely affect libido and sexual performance. Sugar has been linked to a host of ailments like diabetes and cardiovascular diseases. However, high sugar intake has also been linked to conditions such as impotence and premature ejaculation. It is also associated with the development of distorted sexual fantasies as well as an increased propensity for sexual violence (Garcia et al., 2022; Gomez et al., 2024; Miner at al., 2012; Thompson, 1992).

Conversely, certain foods rich in specific nutrients have been reported to enhance sexual mood and desire (IsHak et al., 2017). For example, avocados, known for their high content of healthy fats, have been shown to stimulate sexual desires and feelings of potency. Additionally, foods rich in zinc, such as oysters, and those containing arginine, like nuts and seeds, are also thought to promote sexual mood and performance. These foods contribute to healthy blood flow, thereby enhancing arousal through improved circulation and heightened sensitivity in erogenous areas.

Histamine is also reported to have a role in sexual behavior. It is naturally found in certain foods, like fermented soy (miso and kimchi), dairy products (e.g., cheese), cured and aged meats (e.g., salami and smoked meats), and shellfish (e.g., shrimps and lobster). Research has linked a deficiency of histamines, either in blood or tissue, to difficulties in achieving orgasms in both men and women (Meston & Frohlich, 2000). Histamine production was reported to be triggered by the presence of folic acid and vitamins B6 and B12. Foods abundant in folic acid include asparagus, leafy green, peanuts, mushrooms, whole-grain cereals, lean beef, and egg yolk.

Mood and criminal behavior

The impact of inadequate intake of essential nutrients has been noted among incarcerated individuals, manifesting in disrupted mood and cognitive patterns that significantly contribute to their engagement in unlawful activities (Smith et al., 2023). Schauss (1980) observed distinct hair mineral patterns in incarcerated individuals with a history of violent behavior. In a recent study (Jones & Brown, 2022) individuals were categorized into two groups based on their hair mineral analysis, encompassing minerals such as calcium, zinc, copper, and selenium One group received mineral supplements, while the other did not.

The results of this study revealed significant improvement in the group provided with a diet supplemented with minerals. Additionally, when criminals are educated about consuming more nutritious foods, there is a notable enhancement in their behavior (Brown & Johnson, 2022). A considerable proportion of nutritionally rehabilitated offenders had adopted a changed lifestyle and refrained from behavior requiring further incarceration (Miller et al., 2021). For instance, in one study, 80% of incarcerated individuals who underwent nutrition counseling demonstrated substantial rehabilitation compared with only 20% of those who did not receive such counseling and therefore did not amend their dietary habits (Adams & White, 2020).

According to Schauss (1980), between eighty to ninety percent of individuals who engaged in criminal activities displayed symptoms indicative of hypoglycemia or allergies triggered by food imbalance, water, or airborne substances. A significant portion of criminal acts occurred when individuals experienced hypoglycemia, resulting in inadequate glucose supply to the brain's higher centers responsible for critical thinking and socially acceptable behavior. Consequently, this deficiency in glucose, which is a primary energy source for the brain, is hypothesized to impair the functioning of these crucial brain centers, involved in critical thinking (Schauss, 1980; Grayson & Robinson, 2019).

Brain and neurological dysfunctions

An unhealthy diet lacking nutrients, especially essential nutrients, often serves as the underlying cause of changes in the brain structures and neurological functions ultimately affecting mood, cognition, and emotional well-being. Indeed, a number of studies have reported a direct link between unhealthy diets, the lack of essential nutrients, and the deterioration of gray matter characteristic of dementias, shrinkage of brain volume and loss of the characteristic furrows (called sulci) of healthy human brain, signaling greater risk of dementia.

Structures of the brain affected by unhealthy diets or a lack of essential nutrients include the hippocampus, prefrontal cortex, amygdala that regulates emotions and emotional responses, the thalamus, brainstem, and the hypothalamus. These regions play crucial roles in various cognitive functions, emotional regulation, and overall brain health. Thus, ensuring a diet rich in essential nutrients is essential for maintaining optimal brain function and reducing the risk of neurological disorders and chronic diseases.

Hippocampus: Neuroimaging techniques have revealed that individuals who consume the Western diet, characterized by high consumption of processed and refined foods, not only suffered more mood disorders, but according to MRI scans, they showed a smaller hippocampus, which is  involved in memory (Jacka et al., 2015). One proposed explanation is that a diet high in processed food, often lacking essential nutrients, leads to neuro-inflammation. Inflammation can directly modify the structure of the hippocampus and other soft tissue organs involved in the manufacturing of neurotransmitters associated with various neurological and mental disorders.

The prefrontral cortex: In addition to the hippocampus, another brain area significantly affected by unhealthy diets is the prefrontal cortex (Parletta, Milte & Meyer, 2013). The prefrontal cortex plays a crucial role in emotional regulation and a myriad of cognitive functions. Among its roles is executive function, encompassing processes such as focus, judgment, impulse control, organization, planning, and problem-solving. It is also intricately involved in emotional regulation and empathy. Dysfunction in this brain region can lead to difficulties in recognizing and regulating emotions, as well as challenges in understanding and empathizing with others.

Impact on other soft tissue organs

Not only brain centers are affected by the lack of essential nutrients but so are other soft tissue organs that produce neurotransmitters and hormones serving as mood regulators. These organs and the substances they produce to regulate mood and emotional well-being include the adrenal gland (cortisol, adrenaline and noradrenaline), pancreas (insulin); thyroid gland (thyroxine, T4 and trlodothryonine, T3), the gut or Enteric Nervous System (serotonin), ovaries in females (estrogen and progesterone), testes in males (testosterone), and the liver (IGF-1: Insulin-like Growth Factor 1) (Ronzio, 1997; Turner, 2019).

These connections highlight the complex interplay between organ systems, such as the nervous and endocrine systems, and demonstrate the intricate relationship between nutrition, organ function, and emotional well-being. Adequate nutrient intake is essential for the optimal functioning of these organs, which in turn, ensure the balanced production of hormones and neurotransmitters necessary for mood regulation. When the body is deprived of vital nutrients, it can lead to hormonal imbalances and neurotransmitter deficiencies, resulting in mood disorders and emotional instability.

Mood and neurological disorders

Deficiencies or excess of certain nutrients are often the underlying cause of mood and other disturbances emanating from neurological disorders. Specific B vitamins, such as choline, have been linked to depression (Murakami et al., 2010). Choline, a vital member of the B-vitamin family, serves dual functions in the body, particularly crucial to memory and brain functions. It plays a role in the structural integrity of brain cells and is involved in the synthesis of key neurotransmitters that regulate mood and cognition (Gallo & Gámiz, 2023).

Moreover, deficiencies in omega-3 fatty acids, particularly docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), essential for brain development and cognitive functions, have been associated with mood disorders and cognitive decline (Song et al., 2016). Sources rich in omega-3 fatty acids include fatty fish, flaxseeds, chia seeds, and walnuts. Research suggests that omega-3 fatty acids may restore mood stability, and alleviate symptoms of depression and anxiety.

Additionally, polyphenols found in fruits and vegetables have garnered attention for their potential mood-boosting properties. Polyphenols possess antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties, safeguarding cells from damage and reducing the risk of various chronic diseases. Incorporating a diet rich in fruits, vegetables, and other polyphenol-containing foods may offer protective effects against mood disorders and support overall brain health.

Summary and conclusion

In the realm of nutritional science, the delicate balance of essential nutrients plays a pivotal role in dictating our overall health and well-being. Whether it is an inadequacy or an excess of these nutrients, their impact resonates across metabolic processes, giving rise to a myriad of health challenges, including fluctuations in mood and cognitive impairments. This intricate interplay underscores the critical significance of maintaining optimal levels of essential nutrients within our diet.

The fact is that essential nutrients often function synergistically, working together, collaborating to facilitate the synthesis of crucial biological agents such as enzymes, proteins, neurotransmitters, and hormones. These biological substances are indispensable for the optimal functioning of both the body and the brain, regulating various processes ranging from energy metabolism to mood regulation. A deficiency or excess in any of these essential components has the potential to disrupt metabolic pathways, resulting in the suboptimal production of regulatory molecules vital for maintaining physiological equilibrium.

In this context, the integration of a nutritionally rich diet assumes paramount importance. A diet that is abundant in all essential nutrients forms the cornerstone for sustaining optimal bodily functions. By providing the body with the necessary nutrients in adequate quantities, such a diet not only addresses existing health disturbances but also enhances overall well-being. Beyond merely rectifying deficiencies, a nutritionally-rich diet harbors the potential to enhance various facets of physiological functioning. From bolstering cardiovascular health to fortifying cognitive function and immune response, the benefits of a balanced diet extend well beyond mere sustenance. It serves as a foundational pillar for longevity and vitality, nurturing both the body and mind.

In essence, embracing a diet rich in all essential nutrients transcends mere sustenance; it represents a proactive stride towards optimizing health and maximizing quality of life. As our understanding of the intricate connections between nutrition and health continues to evolve, the significance of nourishing our bodies with the right nutrients becomes increasingly evident.

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